Journey Through Exodus 20-40Sample

National Covenant Formalized: Behind the Text

The particular kind of covenant relationship God was initiating with Israel closely followed the format of a well-known political institution.

Contracts, Covenants & Treaties

Bulls in the Ancient Near East

Worshiping a golden calf was inexcusable treason, but there are reasons why they so easily wandered into this trap.

It might seem bizarre that the Hebrews produce a golden calf to worship at Sinai. Why would they produce an idol in the image of a calf?

The first thing to note is that bulls and calves were very common images in ancient Near Eastern worship. But why? Was it because they were the most numerous among farmers’ holdings?

Was the idol a calf because bulls and calves were larger and more substantial than sheep and goats? Perhaps. But there is more.

Apis was perhaps Egypt’s first god—a fertility deity associated with agriculture and the embodiment of Osiris. His form as a bull was worshiped at Memphis, Egypt’s long standing administrative capital.

A bull and a cow were both associated with fertility, which leads to an association with calves that was widespread in the Fertile Crescent as well.

Hathor was an Egyptian goddess who represented female love and motherhood and fertility in general. She was often depicted as a cow.

You are maybe familiar with Ba’al from the Bible. He is the storm god worshiped in Canaan. He is represented simply by a bull.